Discourse Markers
Discourse means “pieces of language longer than a sentence.” Some words and phrases are used to show how discourse is constructed. They can show the connection between what a writer has been discussing, what was previously written and what will be written; they can help to make clear the structure of what is being written; they can indicate what a writer thinks about what has been written or about someone else’s viewpoint. There are a very large number of these “discourse markers”, and it is impossible to give a complete list in a few pages. Here are some of the most common examples. Some of these words and expressions have more than one use; for more information, look in a good dictionary. Some of these markers are used mostly in informal writing; others are more common in a formal style. Note that a discourse marker usually comes at the beginning of a clause. Also, some of these markers begin independent clauses, and others only begin dependent clauses. Your teacher can go over those distinctions in class. Right now, just focus on the main use of each type of expression.
◆Focusing and Linking
As far as...is concerned,
As for...,
These expressions focus attention on what is going to be written, by announcing the subject in advance. Some of them also make a link with previous discourse, by referring back to what was discussed before.
As regards... and As far as...is concerned usually signal a change of subject by the writer: “There are no problems with production. Now as regards marketing, I think the best thing to do....” “There are no problems with production. As far as marketing is concerned, I think the best thing to do....”
As for usually signals a lack of interest, a strong difference of opinion with someone, or dislike for something or someone: “As for the opposing viewpoint, it has been adequately demonstrated that there is little merit in its argument.”
◆Balancing Contrasting Points
On the other hand,...
While....
Whereas....
These expressions are used to balance two facts or ideas that contrast, but do not necessarily contradict each other.
“Arranged marriages are common in many Middle Eastern countries. In the West, on the other hand, they are unusual.”
“I like spending my holidays in the mountains, while/whereas my wife prefers the seaside.”
“While/whereas some languages have 30 or more different vowel sounds, others have five or less.”
◆Emphasizing a Contrast
However,...
Nevertheless,...
Still,...
Yet....
In spite of...,
However and nevertheless emphasize the fact that the second point contrasts with the first. Nevertheless is very formal: “Britain came last in the World Children’s Games again. However, we did have one success, with Annie Smith’s world record in the first race of the day.”
Still introduces the contrasting point as an afterthought: “I don’t like the job much. Still, the money’s okay.
Yet, still, and in spite of... can be used to suggest that something is surprising, in view of what has been written before: “He says he’s a Socialist, and yet he owns three houses and drives a Rolls.” “The train was an hour late. In spite of this, I still managed to get to the meeting in time.” “I still managed to get to the meeting in time.”
◆ Similarity
Similarly,...
In the same way,...
These expressions are more common in a formal style.
“The roads are usually very crowded at the beginning of the holiday season. Similarly, there are often serious traffic jams at the end of the holidays.”
“James Carter did everything he could to educate his children. In the same way, they in turn put a high value on their own children’s education.”
◆Concession and Counter-Argument
Concession:
It is true....
Of course....
Certainly....
If....
May....
Counter-Argument:
However,...
Even so,...
But....
Nevertheless,...
Nonetheless,...
All the same,...
Still,...
These expressions are used in a three part structure: (1) the writer mentions facts that point in a certain direction, (2) it is agreed (the concession) that a particular contradictory fact points the other way, (3) but the writer dismisses this contradiction and returns to the original argument.
“I cannot agree with colonialism. It is true that the British may have done some good in India. Even so, colonialism is basically evil.”
“He is incapable of lasting relationships with women. Certainly, several women loved him, and he was married twice. All the same, the women closest to him were invariably deeply unhappy.”
“Very few people understood Einstein’s theory. Of course, everybody had heard of him, and a fair number of people knew the word ‘relativity’, but hardly anybody could tell you what he had actually said.”
“It was a successful party. The Scottish cousins, if a little surprised by the family’s behavior, were nonetheless impressed by the friendly welcome they received.”
“I’m glad to have a place of my own. It’s true it’s a bit small and it’s a long way from the center and it does need many repairs done. Still, it’s home.”
◆Contradicting
On the contrary,...
The expression is used when a writer wants to strengthen a negative statement just made.
“She did not allow the accident to discourage her. On the contrary, she began to work twice as hard.”
“The lecture was not at all interesting. On the contrary, it was a complete waste of time.”
◆Dismissal of Previous Discourse
Anyway,...
Anyhow,...
At any rate,...
At least....
These expressions can be used to mean “What was written before doesn’t matter; the main point is as follows.” Anyway and anyhow are very informal expressions.
“I’m not sure what time I’ll arrive, maybe half past seven or a quarter of eight. Anyway/Anyhow/At any rate, I’ll certainly be there before eight.”
“What a terrible experience! Anyway/Anyhow/At any rate, you’re safe; that’s the main thing.”
At least can suggest that one thing is certain or all right, even if anything else is unsatisfactory: “The car’s completely smashe up. I don’t know what we’re going to do. At least nobody was hurt.”
◆Time or Logical Sequence
First, Firstly, First of all,...
Second, Secondly,...
Third, Thirdly,...
Lastly,...
Finally,...
To begin with,...
To start with,...
In the first/second/third place,...
During....
For one thing,...
For another thing,...
We use these expressions to more firmly root the reader to ideas that are connected by order of importance, order of logic, or by chronology. Firstly, secondly, and thirdly are more formal than first, second, and third, and are more commonly used in British than American English.
“First(ly), we need somewhere to live. Second(ly), we need to find works, and third(ly), we need to....”
“There are three reasons why I don’t want to dance with you. To start with, my feet hurt. For another thing, you can’t dance, and thirdly, this music is giving me a headache.”
“Twins or triplets can be formed during the division of the fertilized egg.” “During the Cultural Revolution, many young people were sent to the countryside.”
◆Adding
Moreover,... (very formal)
Furthermore,... (formal)
In addition,...
As well as that,...
On top of that,... (informal)
Another thing is... (informal)
What is more,...
Besides,...
In any case,...
These expressions can be used to add information to what has already been written.
“The Prime Minister is unwilling to admit that he can ever be mistaken. Moreover, he is totally incapable of admitting that his associates are ever in the wrong.”
“The peasants are desperately short of food. In addition, they urgently need doctors and medical supplies.”
“She borrowed my bike and never gave it back. As well as that/On top of that, she broke the lawnmower and then pretended she hadn’t.”
Besides and In any case can add an extra, more conclusive fact or argument: “Why are you trying to get a job as a secretary? You’d never manage to work eight hours a day. Besides/In any case, you can’t type.”
◆Generalizing
On the whole,...
In general,...
In all/most/many/some cases,...
Broadly speaking,...
By and large,...
To a great extent,...
To some extent,...
Apart from...,
Except for...,
These expressions tell how far the writer thinks a certain generalization is true.
“On the whole, I had a happy childhood.”
“In general, we are satisfied with the work.”
“Broadly speaking, teachers are overworked and underpaid.”
“To a great extent, a person’s character is formed by the age of eight.”
“In most cases, people will be nice to you if you are nice to them.”
Apart from and Except for introduce exceptions to generalizations: “Apart from the salad, I thought the meal was excellent.” “Except for Sally, all the people there seemed pretty sensible.”
◆Giving Examples
For instance,...
For example,...
e.g....
In particular,...
These expressions introduce particular examples to introduce what has been written.
“People often behave strangely when they’re abroad. Take Mrs. Ellis, for example/for instance....”
“Some common minerals, e.g. silica or olivine....”
In particular focuses on a special example: “We are not at all happy with the work you did on the new kitchen. In particular, we consider the quality of the wood used for the cupboards to be very poor.”
◆Logical Consequence
Therefore,... (formal)
As a result,... (formal)
Consequently,... (formal)
So....
These expressions signal that what is written next follows logically upon what was just written.
“Her parents’ approval was most important to her. She was therefore unable to avoid an unwelcome marriage.”
“Her parents’ approval was most important to her, so had to marry a man she didn’t like.”
“Her parents’ approval was most important to her. As a result, she was devastated by their harsh response to her divorce.”
“The company is opening new branch offices in Beijing and Xian. Therefore, we will need to hire bilingual employees.”
◆Making Things Clear, Giving Details
Actually,...
That is to say,...
In other words,...
Actually can be used to give details, especially when those details are unexpected: “Tommy’s really stupid; he actually still believes in Santa Claus.”
That is to say and In other words are used when the writer is about to repeat what has been written, but in different words: “We cannot continue with the deal on this basis. That is to say/In other words, unless you bring down the price we shall have to cancel the order.”
Persuading
After all,...
No doubt....
After all suggests that what follows or precedes is a strong argument that the reader might not have taken into consideration: “I think we should let her go on holiday alone this year. After all, she is fifteen; she is not a child.”
No doubt can be used to persuade people politely to do things or to express an opinion that the writer feels will be generally accepted: “No doubt you’ll be paying your rent soon?” “No doubt the evidence gathered from the experiments will convince the scientific community of the veracity of my theory.”
◆Referring to Another’s Expectations
Actually,...
As a matter of fact,... (informal)
In fact,...
These expressions are used to clarify whether someone else’s expectations have been fulfilled or not.
Actually can express a confirmation or a negation of another person’s expectations: “He asked me if I enjoyed my holiday and I answered ‘Yes, actually.’” “He asked me if I enjoyed my holiday and I answered ‘Actually, no; it rained the entire time.”
Actually, As a matter of fact, and In fact can introduce additional information: “The weather was awful. Actually, the campsite was flooded and we had to come home.” “Was the concert nice?” “Yes, as a matter of fact, it was terrific.” “Did you meet the Minister?” “Yes; in fact, he asked us to lunch.”
All three of the expressions are used when the writer expresses that someone’s expectations were not fulfilled: “How was the holiday?” “Well, actually, we didn’t go.” “How much were the carrots?” “Well, in fact, I forgot to buy them.” “I hope you passed the exam.” “No, as a matter of fact, I didn’t.”
Actually is often used to introduce corrections: “Hello, John.” “Actually, my name is Phillip.”
◆Summing Up
In summary,...
Briefly,...
In short,...
These expressions are most common in a formal style.
“In summary, then, we can see that Britain’s economic problems were mainly due to lack of industrial investment.”
“Briefly, the reports of the experiments will be published in the following two issues of the company update.”
“He’s lazy, he’s ignorant, and he’s careless. In short, he’s useless.”
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